% background 1000
% - EIA & SEA                 400
% - sustainable development   200
% - RMA                       400

\section{Background}

\subsection{Environmental Impact Assessment}

The term ``Environmental Impact Assessment'' (EIA) is used to refer to
a set of standardised procedures that are designed to inform the
decision-making processes surrounding development proposals. According
to the International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA), a major
objective of EIA is to ``anticipate and avoid, minimize or offset the
adverse significant biophysical, social and other relevant effects''
of such proposals ``prior to major decisions being taken and
commitments made'' \parencite{principles}.

In order to provide decision-makers with sufficiently detailed insight
into the potential positive and negative effects of a project on the
environment, the participation of all parties that would be affected
by the project, as well as the participation of the general public is
explicitly encouraged \parencite{principles}.  The involvment of the
public in the decision-finding process is a crucial component of EIA
as those responsible for the project proposal and the prediction of
its impacts on the social and natural environment do not necessarily
share the values of affected communities.  Hence, public participation
can provide balance to the biases of developers and the assessors they
hire \parencite{wilkins}.


\subsubsection{EIA activities and procedures}

The EIA process generally involves the following
activities \parencite{principles}:

\begin{enumerate}
  \item[Screening and scoping.]

    The goal of the \emph{screening} step is to limit the application
    of EIA procedures to those projects that are expected to have
    significant effects on the environment.  What kind of projects require
    an impact assessment varies from country to country. When a proposal
    is subject to EIA, the \emph{scope} of the assessment is determined by
    identifying the key impacts that are associated with the project.

  \item[Consideration of alternatives.]
    TODO: important. Spend a little more time on this.

  \item[Impact analysis, mitigation, and evaluation of residual impacts.]
    (TODO: Evaluation of the significance of residual impacts)

  \item[Reporting, independent review and decision-making.]
    TODO

  \item[Monitoring and other follow-up activities.]
    TODO
\end{enumerate}


\subsubsection{The role of sustainable development}

As the concept of sustainable development became more popular
... scope of project-based impact assessment determined to be too
narrow to ensure a progression towards sustainable
development. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) ...

TODO:
- broad definition of ``environment'' is adopted



\subsection{The Resource Management Act 1991}

The Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) is the overarching
environmental management framework which governs the allocation and
utilisation of New Zealand's natural resources and controls adverse
effects on the environment. The RMA is the result of efforts to unify
and simplify previous legislation relating to environmental management
which had lead to what was perceived as an uncoordinated, complex
network of confusing environmental management
strategies \parencite{twp98}. It consolidated around 70 laws and
statutes and is generally considered to be the first piece of
integrated sustainability legislation in the
world \parencite{rma-guide}.

The RMA has been described as an ``effects-based approach'' to
regulation \parencite{sadler}, as it does not intend to regulate human
activities per se, but ``focuses on the regulation of the effects of
human activities on the environment'' \parencite{furuseth}. Notably,
the RMA makes no reference to EIA or environmental assessment
procedures. As \textcite{sadler} writes, environmental assessment
under the RMA

\begin{quote}
  operates within the statutory planning
  and consent system rather than as a separate procedure, applies
  explicitly to projects and is indirectly specified for policy
  statements and strategic plans which local authorities are required to
  prepare to guide and implement sustainable resource
  management. \parencite[p 31]{sadler}.
\end{quote}


\subsubsection{The role of sustainable development}

- broad definition of ``environment'' is adopted
``Social Assessment'' (Taylor et al in the Green Book, chapter 25)
\begin{quote}
   The New Zealand Resource Management Act (1991) is regarded by many as the
   foremost and most innovative national legislation for environmental assessment in recent
   years. This act has included mandatory requirements for the assessment of environmental
   effects, with “social,” “cultural,” and “amenity values” clearly included in the definition
   of environment. Also required are public involvement and community consultation, and
   monitoring of effects once the plan or project has begun.
\end{quote}

% TODO: RMA and SEA
% ``Social Assessment'' (Taylor et al in the Green Book, chapter 25)
% \begin{quote}
%   It provides a comprehensive framework with a single
%   purpose of promoting “the sustainable management of natural and
%   physical resources” (Section 5).
% \end{quote}


\subsubsection{Decentralised environmental management}

Interestingly and somewhat unusually in international comparison, the
RMA shifts the main responsibility of resource management activities
to local authorities rather than imposing a prescriptive management
style. The role of central government under the RMA is purposefully
limited, allowing district and city councils to let their decisions be
guided by locally determined goals. This devolved mandate---the
distribution of management responsibility from the national to the
regional and finally local level---is intended to ensure that
decisions relating to resource usage are made not only within the
national policy framework but also at a level closest to the resources
in question \parencite[p 27]{miller2010implementing}.

Responsible for the national policy framework within which local
authorities are encouraged to develop local plans and evaluate
resource consent applications is the Ministry for the
Environment\footnote{Since the RMA amendments of 2009, the newly
founded Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) is increasingly
taking over the regulatory functions of the Ministry for the
Environment, which is now focusing on policy and regulation under
environmental acts other than the
RMA \parencite{miller2010implementing}.}. The Ministry is supposed to
prepare and publish national policy statements---declaring governance
intent relating to issues affecting the whole country or in
fulfillment of international agreements---as well as national
environmental standards (specific points of reference in the areas of
air quality, water quality, etc).

According to \textcite{furuseth}, ``among local government units, the
regional councils are presented with the greatest responsibilities and
the most far reaching potential to implement sustainable
management'' \parencite[p 262]{furuseth}. On the regional level,
regional councils are to produce regional policy statements (RPS) and
may also produce more comprehensive and prescriptive regional plans to
support the goal of achieving integrated management of natural
resources. Regional policy statements ``present an assessment of
existing conditions and a direction for resource management in the
region'' and are therefore at the core of the goal to achieving
sustainable development which is implemented through decisions over
resource consents \parencite{furuseth}.  As
\textcite{miller2010implementing} notes, the issues every regional
council has to address in plans and policy statements are mostly
related to the sustainable management of natural or physical
resources.

Planning freedom at the district level is largely constrained by the
regional plans and policies. % TODO? one more sentence


\subsubsection{Coordination and cooperation}

% merge this section with the previous section
This overlapping mandate clearly requires special efforts to ensure coordination ...
%TODO: must mention consultation steps in RMA! check miller2010implementing


\subsubsection{Plans and resource consents}

The plans and policies at the national, regional, and district level
provide a framework for regulation of development activities.
%TODO: the evolution of a plan; public participation in the evolution of plans

For every proposed activity that is not explicitly allowed as a
`Permitted Activity' in the appropriate regional or district plan, a
resource consent has to be obtained from the local authorities before
development may commence \parencite{fookes}. For every resource
consent application, the proponent is required to produce an
Assessment of Environmental Effects (AEE).

% TODO: explain AEE, Schedule 4
%TODO: public participation through notification

% In NZ EIA happens on two levels: when the plans are created (which
% determine Permitted Activities) and during AEE in resource consents